NEGATION IN YUKUBEN LANGUAGE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       GENERAL BACKGROUND

            Yukuben language is one of the languages spoken in Taraba state. Taraba state is a state in Nigeria named after the Taraba River which transverses the southern part of the state. Taraba’s capital is Jalingo. Taraba state is bounded in the west by Plateau and Benue states and on the east by Cameroon. Taraba states has sixteen local government areas which are governed by elected chairmen.Out of the local government area is Takum local government where the language of the study ‘Yukuben’ is spoken. As at 1992, it was recorded that the population of Yukuben speakers was 15,000 and the population in all countries was 15,950. It was later discovered that they were scattered all over the countries. As at 2010, they recorded that in Nigeria, they are about 23,000 in population and 25,000 in all countries. The major occupation of the people of Taraba state is agriculture. Taraba is called ‘Nature’s gift to the nation’ as the state is rich and have many ethnic groups including Kutep, Jukun, Chamba, Mumuyes, Mambia, Wukums, Fulanis, Khen, Tiv, Jenjo, Hausa and Ndoro. Source: Lewis, M. Paul (ed) 2009 “Yukuben: a language of Nigeria”.

1.2       HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

            According to oral history from the native speaker, the Yukuben people of the present day Taraba state of Nigeria are of Jukun origin.Thier region is Takum local government area between Katsina Ala and Gamana river. Yukuben speakers can also be found in the North west province of Cameroon. In Cameroon, Yukuben people are known as ‘uuhumgigi’ but the people are originally called Yukuben. Breton (1986) recorded about 950 speakers of Yukuben language in cameroon. The term Yukuben comes from Kuteb – Yikuben and the meaning of Yukuben is ‘the child of a witch’. The alternative name for the language are Nyikobe, Nyikuben, Boritsu, Ayikobe, Uuhumgigi, Gohum, Balaabe. It must however be noted that this language have dialectal variants known as ‘Lísà’, ‘shìbún’ and ‘Fété’.

            Yukuben people are headed by a king called the ‘Ùdéng Uchun’ of Uuhumkhigi land. He is assisted by a group of chiefs called Bàgbàn. The administration of Yukuben land is pictured into village heads who report to the district heads and they in turn report to the king, the Ùdéng Uchun.

1.3       SOCIOCULTURAL PROFILE OF YUKUBEN

            The major social institution among Yukuben people is the marriage institution. The first step is a proposal made by groom’s family to the bride’s family. If the proposal is accepted, introduction follows where the husband family provides palm oil in calabash and cock to the in-law. Bushmeats are also presented. After the approval, the date of wedding is fixed where the groom’s family have to provide the favourite wine of the land called “Bùrukùtù”. They drink and celebrate on the wedding day. The main interesting thing is that no payment of Dowry.

            An average Yukuben man  or woman is a professional farmer. Cash crops such as guinea-corn, maize, groundnut, rice, millet, cassava, yam are produced in commercial quantity. Soybeans, palm wine, honey, colanut, cocoa are also produced by the people.They export crops and sell to other parts of Taraba state. Similarly, the people undertake other livestock production activities like poultry production, pig farming and rabbit breeding. Other occupational activities they engaged in are pottery, cloth-weaving, carpentry, bricklaying, mat-making, carving, black-smiting.

            The major religion of Yukuben people is Christianity and Traditional religion. There is no mosque in the village talkless of having Muslim worshippers. Traditionally, they worship Idola masquerade, ‘Oohgum’ which is said to protects against witch craft, ‘Khima’ is said to be the god of thunder and used against thieves, ‘Bahmbre’ is also said to be used against witch craft and thieves.

            For their dressing, they put on weaved cloth known as ‘Ukya’ in Yukuben language which is usually known as ‘Aso òfì by Yorubas’. Also men wear what is known as “Ìsáng” in their language. This Ìsáng is produced using bark of the tree beaten till it become soft or tender to wear.

            The major food they take is maize, guinea-corn, cassava, plantain, yam, rice. They usually produced their wine using guinea-corn, this wine is known as ‘Bùrùkùtù’ or ‘Besen’. They also convert rice to ‘Tuwo’ called ‘Buna’.

1.4       GENETIC CLASSIFICATION

            Yukuben belongs to the Jukunoid phylum. Below is a language chart which shows the language genetic classification.

1.5       SCOPE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

            In this project, we intend to investigate the following aspects of Yukuben language.

• Relationship between non-negative sentences and negative sentences in Yukuben language.
• Identify the negative  markers and illustrate how they are used in Yukuben language.
• To study in detail the types of negation strategies that exist in Yukuben language.
• Investigate the syntactic positions of the negative markers as found in the syntax of Yukuben language.
• To examine if there is any significant role played by tone in negative construction in the language.
• To find out the implications of negation in the syntax of Yukuben.

This long essay is divided into five chapters. The first chapter is the introductory chapter. The second chapter deals with the phonological and syntactic aspect of the language. Chapter three present negation in Yukuben language. Chapter four deals with transformational process and negation, and finally chapter five summarizes and concludes the project.

1.6       THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

            The theoretical framework for this research is Government and Binding theory by Chomsky 1981. This framework expresses the generalization about the phrase structure of all human languages rather than features peculiar to individual languages.

            Government and Binding theory is an arrangement of principles and sub-theories which interact in many different ways. The sub-theories of Government and Binding theory are X-BAR theory, theta (θ – theory), case theory, Binding theory, Bounding theory, control theory and Government theory. (Horrocks 1987:101). Each of these subtheories will be examined in the sections which follow.

Below is the diagram that shows the sub-theories of Government and Binding theory as they interact.

          The diagram shows the component of government and Binding theory. In the Government and Binding theory, we see the bridging level between sounds and meaning,that is S-structure leading on one hand to phonological form (PF), on the other to Logical form (LF) the S-structure is related by movement to the D-structure that expresses the structural relationship in the sentence. The principle of move α (that is the distance and an item that can be moved is limited). Move α is constrained. Government and Binding theory has sub-theories which is discussed below.

1.6.1    X – BAR THEORY

            According to Gert (1995 p.18), x-bar theory is a central module of the principles and parameters approach to syntactic theory. All other modules in one way or another draw on the basic structures it makes available together with the lexicon and the projection principle in defining their own concepts. And X-bar theory as one of the principles of generative syntax is of the idea that syntax is structure determined. The structural principles of x-bar theory can be summarized in terms of traditional notion of endocentricity. X–bar theory provides principles for the projection of phrasal categories from lexical categories and imposes conditions on the hierarchical organization of categories in the form of general schemata. Yusuf (1998:32) talks about the principle for projection of phrasal categories by saying that all major lexical categories project to the phrase (V:, VP, N:, NP, P:, PP) it makes sense to abstract away from category specificity and code all categories with a variable X (i.e. x ranges over N, V, P, A and ADV) and thus find out the structure of XP. We assume an abstract construct specifier (SPEC) (to specify the type of phrase we have, literally). This node will reduce some from the phrasal category to give us the XI, the intermediate level:

          Further, XI may contain other satellites, some necessary as part of the meaning of the x-head, others added, though useful, information, these are adjunct and complement. Adjunct is additional information and complement is necessary information. The complement is closest to the Head, while Adjunct is distanced, linearly. Adjunct and XI will project to another XI while head (bar X) and the complement will project to an XI:

Yusuf (1998:33)

          This represents the principle to be used in projection of phrasal categories and all other module draw on his basic structure in defining their own concept. Crucially, it makes explicit the notion ‘head of phrase’. In x-bar theory, we have the projection principle which project from ‘core projection level to the maximal projection level’, therefore the diagram above is the projection principle. According to Horrocks (1987:99), x-bar theory tells us that a lexical head (X) and its complements form a constituent (XI) and that any specifier of this form with a high level constituent (XP), which is shown in the diagram above.

            The X-bar theory, also have the principle of Head and Parameter which makes the rule in X-bar theory possible. This principle refers to the order of element in a language. The basic assumption of head parameter is that sentences may be broken into constituent phrase and structural grouping of words. Head of a phrase is very important in x-bar theory.

            In all, we have been discussing x-bar theory (phrase structure) as consisting of lexical phrases, and the type of head in lexical phrases is related to word classes. Lexical phrases invariably have heads that are lexical categories linked to lexical elements. We also have functional phrases which are build around functional heads. Functional phrases invariably have heads that are linked to functional elements, they include inflectional phrases and complementizer phrase. The maximal level of a sentence is called inflectional phrase in x-bar theory. It consist of specifier and a single bar level inflection (II), it in turn consist of a zero bar level inflection (II) and a complement. It is illustrated as:

IP → Spec II

II → I     Complement

            Also complementizer phrase consist of specifier and a single bar level complement (CI) which in turn contains complement and inflectional phrase. It is illustrated thus:

CP → Spec CI

CI → C   IP

            We also have Determinant phrase consisting of specifier and (single) bar determiner which in turn contains a determinant and NP.

DP → Spec DI

DI → D     NP

            By doing this, we’ve tried to illustrate the x-bar theory as used in relation to phrase structure. It only serves as template for other modules.

1.6.2    THETA THEORY (Θ – THEORY)

            Following Riemsdijk and Williams (1986 p.15), θ – theory (theta-theory) concerns the fundamental logical notion ‘argument of’, a notion (like case) that any theory of grammar must account for. According to Yusuf (1998:23), the module called the Theta-theory with the subtle observation that a lexical category will have θ-attribute either as a receiver or as assigner. Theta theory deals with the assignment of semantic roles (θ-roles), such as ‘recipient’, to elements in the sentence, constrained by the θ-criterion. It is also concerned with the assignment of what Chomsky calls ‘thematic roles’ to sentential constituents. The Greek letter theta is a form of shorthand for thematic. By thematic roles, Chomsky means roles such as agent, patient (or theme), beneficiary etc. It is assumed that these are assigned to the complements of lexical items as a lexical property. Any constituent assigned a θ-role by definition denotes a predicate argument. By projection principle, and the principle of x-bar theory, the categories assigned θ-roles in lexical entries are projected from the lexicon to become constituent of D-structure, S-structure and LF. The main principle of θ-theory is the θ-criterion, which requires each thematic role to be uniquely assigned i.e. each constituent denoting an argument is assigned just one θ-role and θ-role is assigned to just one argument – denoting constituent. In Yusuf (1998 p.24), each argument bears one and only one θ-role and each θ-role is assigned to one and argument. The commonly expressed roles are agent, patient (or theme), instrument, locative, (goal, source, direction) and a few more. Participants are assigned these role in the D-structure. θ-theory is the linguist’s development of the intuitive logical notion of “argument of”, of the relation of John and Mary, to loves, in John loves Mary. According to Chomsky, John and Mary are refers to thematic role, one playing the role of agent and the other patient. The verb phrase (loves) assigns agent role to the subject NP and also assigns patient role to the object of the verb.

1.6.3    CASE THEORY

            Simply by Yusuf (1998:20), case has to do primarily with the forms that NPs take in different syntactic environments. Case theory deals with the assignment of particular ‘cases’ of noun phrases in the sentence according to their position in the D-structure or S-structure, thereby accounting for eventual difference between the surface forms.Chomsky assumes that all NPs with lexical content are assigned (abstract) case (abstract case is usually distinguished from the case as an overt inflectional category by the use of an initial capital). The basic idea of Horrocks (1987) was that the case is assigned under government, the choice of case being determined by the governor in any given example. In the context of Government and Binding theory, the essential point is that there can be no case marking without government, ungoverned positions cannot receive case. One of the most important principles of case theory is the case of filter, which states that any S-structure that contains Noun phrase (NP) with lexical content but no case is ungrammatical. In case theory, Nominative is assigned by Tensed INFL, Accusative is assigned by V and oblique is assigned by P. N, A, are not known to assign any case. Further to the assignment of case, all noun phrases that have phonetic content must have case, or else they are ill-formed. This corollary is known as the case filter, which is detectable in the Phonetic Form (PF). Chomsky (1981:49) characterize case filter as the one assumed to be a filter in the PF-component: *NP if NP has phonetic form and  no case.This filter has been variantly rendered formally as:

* NP

+ LEXICAL

– CASE                   (Lasnik and Uriagereka 1988:12)

            To explain the idea of case, I will like to explain with the example below using projection principle.

Ade bought the book from Olu

          In the diagram, NP subject is assigned nominative by INFL, verb assigns accusative case to object of the verb while preposition assigns oblique case to its object. I will use theta theory to explain better. VP ‘bought’ assigns agent role to the subject NP ‘Ade’, and verb ‘bought’ assigns patient role to the object of the verb (i.e. the book) and preposition (i.e. form) assigns locative role to its NP i.e. ‘Olu’. To round up the preliminaries on case, we mention that adjacency is required for case assignment. This is to say that case assignees and the assignors must be contiguous with no barrier blocking the discharge of the ‘abstract’ case.

1.6.4    BINDING THEORY

            Binding theory deals with how the reference of various types of Noun Phrase can be linked to other Noun Phrase. Yusuf (1998 p.145) says Binding theory is concerned with the relationships of NP participant in the sentence. It explains whether expressions in the sentence may refer to the same entities as other expressions. In other words, it is concerned primarily with the conditions under which NPs are interpreted and co-referential with other NPs in the same sentence. For the purpose of binding theory, NPs that are arguments are assumed to fall into one of the three categories listed below:

(i) Anaphors                (ii) Pronominals                 (iii) Referential expressions

            Taking each of the three categories in turn, Anaphors may be defined as NPs whose reference is necessarily determined sentence initially and which cannot have independent reference. In English, reflexive and reciprocal pronouns fall into this class.

            Pronominals are NPs that lack specific lexical content and have only the feature person, number, gender and case, unlike anaphors, they may either refer to individuals independently or co-refer to individuals already named in a given sentence.

            Referential expressions are noun phrase with lexical hands which potentially refer to something.

            The binding theory has three sub clauses, one for each of the three subcategories of NP argument:

• An anaphor must be bound in its governing category
• A pronominal must be free in its governing category
• A referential expression must be free every where.

This is the binding theory as given in Chomsky (1981: p.188) The place of Binding theory in grammar is illustrated below.

1.6.5    BOUNDING THEORY

            Bounding theory according to Horrocks (1987:128) is concerned with the limitations to be placed on the displacement of constituents by the transformational rule schema move α, and its chief principle is subjacency. In other word, Bounding Theory prevents the relationships of movement from extending too far in the sentence. Subjacency may be best thought of as a criterial property of move α. Any rule that relates two positions at S-structure, such that one c-commands the other and the c-commanded position is empty, is transformational provide that, amongst other conditions specified, the c-commanded positions is subjacent to c-commanding position.

            I considered this theory ‘Government and Binding Theory’ as the best theory to use in considering the Negation of Yukuben language because: it will give a clear picture of the syntactic structure present in the language. It will also give a clear picture of how each lexical item goes together or work together to make meaningful sentences. Also, the projection principle will be used to reveal how each lexical category is classified.

1.7       DATA COLLECTION AND DATA ANALYSIS

1.7.1    DATA COLLECTION

            The data used for this research work were collected orally from the native speaker of Yukuben language, with the use of frame-techniques and Ibadan 400 word-list items. The researcher used the English language in asking for the data from the Yukuben speakers. The speaker in turn provided the Yukuben response. The model of data elucidation is bilingual. Apart from consulting informants, references were also made to some text books, journals available on the topic to write this project. References were also made via internet. The data collected are worked upon without imposing any extraneous rules of correctness.

            These are some of the information about the informant.

Name of the informant → KURU ADAMU IHAKU IMGBE

Age → 50years

Informant’s language → Yukuben (uuhumkhigi)

Sex → Male

Informant’s village → Bariki Lissa

Number of years spent in the village → 30years

Occupation → Teacher

Other languages spoken → English, Jukun and Hausa

1.7.2    DATA ANALYSIS

            For the analysis of the data, both the Ibadan 400 word-list items and frame techniques are transcribed using right sounds. It was discovered that in writing, the informant used English and Hausa.